Components and structure of the nucleic acids. Polymerization occurs through the condensation of the phosphate on the 5' carbon and OH on the 3' carbon linkage.

Structure and nomenclature of the five nitrogenous bases that form parts of DNA and RNA-thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil.

Polymerization occurs by formation of phosphodiester bonds in the 5' to 3' direction. Synthesis must always add to the 3' end of the growing chain of DNA or RNA.

Base pairing (A/T; C/G) is determined by structure and size of the bases and hold by hydrogen bonds. Structure and size of the anti-parallel double helix.

A look at the stability of the RNA "hairpin" or double helix, wih comparison to the DNA double helix.

Griffith's historical experiments with bacteria that led to the discovery of DNA as the hereditary material.

Detailed review of the structure - sugar, bases, and phosphates - and polymerization of DNA.

Historical experiments that used bacterial phage to confirm DNA as the hereditary material. Radioactively labeling DNA and protein and determine that viruses only inject DNA into bacteria.

Watson and Crick's historical discovery of base pairing and the double helical structure of DNA.

DNA replication is a form of polymerization that requires nucleotides, DNA template, complementary primers, and DNA polymerase. Polymerization occurs in the 5' to 3' direction.

Leading and lagging strands during DNA replication. Primase makes primers and ligase joins the strand made off of the lagging strand. Topoisomerase cuts and unwinds the circular bacterial DNA.

Fidelity of DNA replication depends on the low mistake rates of DNA polymerase, and proofreading and mismatch repair enzymes.

Transcription is the process that uses the template strand of DNA to make mRNA based on base pairing. Transcription starts at the promoter and stops at the stop signal.

Translation is the process that uses mRNA as a template to make protein based on triplet codes. Crick discovered tRNA as the adaptor molecule during translation. Translation starts at the start codon (AUG) and ends at the stop codon.

Translation is the process that uses mRNA as a template to make protein based on triplet codes. Crick discovered tRNA as the adaptor molecule during translation. Translation starts at the start codon (AUG) and ends at the stop codon.

In eukaryotes, immature mRNAs are processed post transcription - introns are spliced out and a 5' G-cap and a 3' poly-A tail are added.

Alternative splicing and domain swapping in eukaryotes results in different proteins from the same gene. Bacteria might have selected out introns under evolutionary pressure.

Overview of DNA-nucleotide structure, polymerization, polarity, base pairing, and the double helix.

Definition, major properties, locations and functions of a gene.

Griffith's experiment that proved DNA was the genetic material. Also known as the "Transforming principle.".

Avery's Experiment isolating DNA as further proof of genetic material.

DNA content varied in different organisms, but remained constant in all tissues within an organism. In all organisms, A and T, and C and G percentages were consistent. Led to the idea of base pairing.

Structure of DNA deduced from X-ray crystallography, base pairing/interaction, and Chargaff's rule.

Structure of DNA deduced from X-ray crystallography, base pairing/interaction, and Chargaff's rule.

Semi-conservative replication of DNA based on experiments with nucleotides with different nitrogen isotopes.

Length of DNA and accuracy of replication. DNA polymerase and mechanism of nucleotide polymerization. Movie showing DNA replication.

DNA polymerization from 5' to 3'. Opening at the replication fork allow simultaneous replication of both leading and lagging strands; need for RNA primers and DNA ligase.

Base pair recognition and endonuclease are responsible for high replication fidelity. Movie showing endonuclease action.

Repair mechanism and mismatch repair during DNA replication. Movie showing DNA repair protein.

Origin of replication in E. coli and replication forks as the initiation of replication.

Information encoded in DNA, RNA, and proteins; storage capacity of DNA

Historical theories on how DNA encoded protein.

Differences between DNA and RNA. Use of mRNA as an intermediate between DNA and protein.

tRNA as the adaptor molecule between mRNA and protein during translation.

Cracking the genetic code. Historical approach of determining which amino acid matched each codon. Properties of the genetic code - degeneracy, start and stop codons, and universality.

Ribosomes and types of RNA involved in translation and peptide bond formation.

Brief summary of the Central Dogma - replication, transcription, and translation - the information flow from DNA to RNA to proteins.

Loops within mRNA/DNA hybrids suggested coding and non-coding information in the DNA. Discovery of RNA splicing. Eukaryotic pre-mRNA contains exons and introns.

Factor VIII and Dystrophia as examples of splicing. Demonstrates length of exons and alternative splicing.

RNA catalyzes its own splicing. Discovery of enzymatic functions of RNA.

Nucleotide structure and components - sugar, phosphate group, and bases. Formation of DNA/RNA from monomeric nucleotides through phosphodiester bonds. Hydrogen bonds and base pairing results in the double helical structure of DNA.

A discussion of the components of nucleic acids: Dibose and deoxyribose, nitrogenous bases, and phosphate groups, as well as a look at the polymerization of nucleotides.

Discusses the various ways DNA gets proofread and repaired after errors or mutagenic damage.

RNA's structure, function, and evolution.

A discussion of the various types of genes and resulting RNA products.

A look at the chemical/informational process of transcription and the macromolecules that assist the process.

Challenges faced by RNA in carrying out transcription, and the role of promoters in solving these challenges.

Parts of a mature mRNA: 5'Gcap, polyA tail, the 5' UTR (untranslated region), and the start codon (AUG). Initiation of translation occurs when the ribosome binds to the 5'Gcap and 5'UTR. tRNA brings a methionine to the AUG start codon.

Mechanism of elongation of protein. Charged tRNA brings amino acid to the mRNA and ribosome. Codon and anti-codon match, and adjacent amino acids join by forming peptide bonds. Termination of the protein chain occurs when the ribosome reaches a stop codon. Polypeptide chain falls off to terminate translation.

Table containing the genetic code and amino acid structure at pH 7.0.

Purines and pyrimidines. Base pairing and hydrogen bonds that form the double helix.

Solution (PDF)^#

Structure and replication of single stranded DNA.

Solution (PDF)

Proofreading and repair mechanisms during DNA replication. Effects of defective DNA polymerase.

Solution (PDF)

Products of transcription and translation. DNA mutations that affect the protein product.

Solution (PDF)

Products of transcription and translation. tRNA mutations that affect the protein product. Comparison between bacterial and human genes.

Solution (PDF)

Problem on DNA replication that asks about primers, and leading and lagging strands during replication.

Solution (PDF)

Problem on the Central Dogma that tests transcription and translation.

Solution (PDF)

Griffith's and other's experiments determined that DNA carried the genetic material.

Solution (PDF)

Components of DNA replication, the replication fork and base pairing, phosphodiester bonds, and polymerase.

Solution (PDF)

Various forms used to represent DNA structure, genes, and mutations.

Solution (PDF)

Table summarizing enzyme, building blocks, start, end, direction, template, and pairings involved in the processes of replication, transcription, and translation.

Solution (PDF)

Identify enzymes, other components and cellular location of DNA replication, transcription, and translation.

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Replication fork, primers, direction of replication, and enzymes involved in replication.

Solution (PDF)

Effect of translational inhibitors on the protein product.

Solution (PDF)

Using Griffith, Avery, Chargaff, and Mendelson and Stohl's experiments as basis, determine the structure of alien DNA based on given data.

Solution (PDF)

Definition, location, and products of transcription and translation.

Solution (PDF)

Effect of mutations in the gene and tRNAs on the protein product.

Solution (PDF)

Identify and compare regions of the gene that do not encode protein.

Solution (PDF)

True or false questions about the process of DNA replication.